Action Science is a form of inquiry into how we design action and how we might create better organizations. It is concerned with practical knowledge for the conduct of human affairs. It proceeds by helping people reflect on their own behavior and on the consequences of their behavior for the social systems in which they participate.
The theory of action approach (Argyris & Schön 1974, 1978, 1996) is the framework for most theory, research, and practice under the name of action science and the terms are often used as synonyms. The theory of action approach can be seen as having three aspects:
1. There is an empirical claim about how human beings act that inhibits learning and effectiveness, what Argyris and Schön called model I. The theory further explains how model I behavior leads to defensive routines that inhibit organizational learning.
2. There is a normative claim about how human beings can act to promote learning and effectiveness, what Argyris and Schön called model II.
3. There is a learning approach and an intervention methodology for helping individuals become capable of model II behavior and for enhancing organizational learning and effectiveness.
On line resources:
• The book Action Science, by Chris Arygris, Robert Putnam, and Diana McLain Smith, is available for download at http://www.actiondesign.com/action_science/index.htm
• The Action Design resources page at http://www.actiondesign.com/resources/index.htm includes links to essays, articles, and a bibliography.
• William Torbert, who studied with Chris Arygris at Yale in the 1960’s, was the first to use the term “action science.” Torbert and associates have pursued this vision through what he now calls developmental action inquiry. His web page is at http://www2.bc.edu/~torbert/.
• http://www.actionscience.com/ has an outline of the theory of action approach and an extensive bibliography of Argyris’ writings.
• There is an on-line Action Science Community at http://www.actionscience.org/. You must be invited to join, but you can apply for an invitation.
• There is an article about the Argyris and Schön approach by Bob Dick and Tim Dalmau at http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/argyris2.html.
Contributor: Robert Putnam bob@actiondesign.com
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Action Inquiry
Developmental Action Inquiry (DAI) is a form of action science (see Argyris ) that seeks development of the people it engages. DAI is about discovering actions in real-time personal and professional settings that alert, attune, and sometimes even align self, immediate others, organizational strategies, and global vision and that encourage non-violent personal, organizational, and societal transformations.
DAI interweaves three types of research in pursuit of a wiser, more effective and impactful social science: first-person research (e.g. observing what I am doing and the effects I and my environment are having on one another, what I am thinking and feeling, and what I really want); second-person research (e.g. encouraging mutual testing of attributions and assessments in real-time conversations and meetings, along with transformations toward increasingly mutual control of our collective vision, strategies, performance, and assessment); and third-person research (e.g. publicly testing propositions with persons not present through measures and publications, as well as through creating learning organizations that interweave first-, second-, and third-person research).
As individuals, teams, and organizations transform through first-, second-, and third-person research, they become increasingly capable of digesting single-, double-, and triple-loop feedback and generating timely reframing and restructuring action.
References:
Rooke, D., & Torbert, W. R. (2005). Seven transformations of leadership. Harvard Business Review, 83(4), 66-76.
Torbert, B., & Associates. (2004). Action inquiry: The secret of timely and transforming leadership. San Francisco: Berrett-Kohler.
Contributors: Chuck Palus and Bill Torbert
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Action Reflection Learning
Originated in the late 70s in Sweden, Action Reflection Learning is a learning methodology that evolved organically through the choices and savvy intuitions of practitioners, and transmitted in knowledge sharing processes. Research conducted by Drizin and Rimanoczy in 2005 allowed to develop a coding of the ARL practice, consisting of 10 principles and 16 elements. The elements are the components used by the ARL practitioners, and the principles are the theoretical framework in which the elements are rooted., belonging to established bodies of knowledge that were found in the literature of other related disciplines.
The ARL learning methodology is applied for the design and facilitation of learning interventions, both individual and collective, in a variety of settings: OD, leadership development, meetings, classroom sessions, conferences, workshops, training sessions, team development, coaching.
References:
Rimanoczy, I., & Turner, E. Action Reflection Learning: Solving real business problems by connecting learning with earning. Davies Black Publishing (forthcoming March 2008)
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Work-Based Learning
Work-Based Learning is an umbrella and eclectic practice that incorporates a number of traditions that specify the opportunity inherent in learning from work rather than only from the classroom. It subscribes to a fluid view of knowledge viewing it as emanating from practice, rather than a prioi from theory conceived in advance of practice. Indeed, knowledge may emerge in the very process of making practice what it is. To promote learning from tacit experience at work, reflection - often facilitated - is required to make explicit what we have observed, planned, or achieved. The reflection in work-based learning is not just private but is also an interactive contention among a community of inquirers who share their ideas and interpretations of what has or is transpiring.
There are three critical elements in the work-based learning process:
a. It views learning as acquired in the midst of action and dedicated to the task at hand.
b. It sees knowledge creation and utilization as collective activities wherein learning becomes everyone's job.
c. Its users demonstrate a learning-to-learn aptitude, which frees them to question the underlying assumptions of practice.
To access electronic resources in work-based learning, readers should first determine if they are interested in particular sites for its practice or in its various modalities. Books and journals may also be consulted.
Sites:
As an umbrella practice, work-based learning can take place among young or adult learners. Schools and universities make use of work-based learning through such programs as internships, cooperative education, service learning, and the like.
For work-based learning to succeed, employers need to be heavily involved from the start. Readers should see the website created by the Conference Board: http://www.work-basedlearning.org
At the undergraduate level, programs are often referred to as work-integrated learning, such as is provided through the World Association of Cooperative Education at: http://www.waceinc.org/. Readers may also consult the Cooperative Education and Internship Association at: http://www.ceiainc.org/
A good example of a postgraduate program is provided by the Work-Based Learning Unit at Leeds University Business School at http://lubswww.leeds.ac.uk/wbl/index.php?id=5
The practice of service learning can be consulted through the National Service-Learning Clearinghouse at: http://www.servicelearning.org/
A key issue in academic work-based learning is how to accredit such learning. For an important report on this issue, see the documentation by the Cumbria, Lancashire, and Greater Manchester Strategic Health Authorities at: http://www.networks.nhs.uk/uploads/2005_Jun/VOLUME%20ONE%20Project%20%20Aims%20and%20Literature%20Review.pdf
Modalities:
Work-based learning can be practiced based on a number of traditions including, of course, action learning. Besides action learning, some of the other prominent modalities are: action science, action research, communities of practice, action inquiry, participative action research, and cooperative inquiry. The following websites may be consulted:
Action science: http://www.actiondesign.com/
Action research: http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arhome.html
Communities of practice: http://www.ewenger.com/theory/index.htm
Action inquiry: http://www2.bc.edu/~torbert/default.html
Participatory action research: http://www2.fhs.usyd.edu.au/arow/arer/004.htm
Cooperative inquiry: http://www.onlinestory.net/docs/cooperative_inquiry.htm#coop
Books:
Work-Based Learning by Boud and Solomon:
http://www.amazon.com/Work-Based-Learning-Education-Society-Research/dp/0335205801/ref=sr_1_1/002-0412627-2280854?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1187037463&sr=8-1;
and by Raelin: http://www.amazon.com/Work-Based-Learning-Frontier-Management-Development/dp/0201433885/ref=sr_1_3/002-0412627-2280854?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1187037358&sr=8-3
Journals: Work-Based Learning in Primary Care: http://www.radcliffe-oxford.com/journals/J16_Work_Based_Learning_in_Primary_Care/default.htm
Contributor: Joe Raelin; website: http://www.poe.neu.edu
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